Die casting

Die casting is the process of forcing molten metal under high pressure into mold cavities . Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, pewter and tin based alloys, although ferrous metal die castings are possible. The die casting method is especially suited for applications where a large quantity of small to medium sized parts are needed with good detail, a fine surface quality and dimensional consistency.

This level of versatility has placed die castings among the highest volume products made in the metalworking industry.
In recent years, injection-molded plastic parts have replaced some die castings because they are cheaper and lighter. Plastic parts are a practical alternative if hardness is not required and little strength is needed.

Process
There are four major steps in the die casting process. First, the mold is sprayed with lubricant and closed. The lubricant both helps control the temperature of the die and it also assists in the removal of the casting. Molten metal is then shot into the die under high pressure; between 10—175 MPa (1,500—25,000 psi). Once the die is filled the pressure is maintained until the casting has solidified. The die is then opened and the shot (shots are different from castings because there can be multiple cavities in a die, yielding multiple castings per shot) is ejected by the ejector pins. Finally, the scrap, which includes the gate, runners, sprues and flash, must be separated from the casting(s). This is often done using a special trim die in a power press or hydraulic press. An older method is separating by hand or by sawing, which case grinding may be necessary to smooth the scrap marks. A less labor-intensive method is to tumble shots if gates are thin and easily broken; separation of gates from finished parts must follow. This scrap is recycled by remelting it. Approximately 15% of the metal used is wasted or lost due to a variety of factors.

The high-pressure injection leads to a quick fill of the die, which is required so the entire cavity fills before any part of the casting solidifies. In this way, discontinuities are avoided even if the shape requires difficult-to-fill thin sections. This creates the problem of air entrapment, because when the mold is filled quickly there is little time for the air to escape. This problem is minimized by including vents along the parting lines, however, even in a highly refined process there will still be some porosity in the center of the casting.
Most die casters perform other secondary operations to produce features not readily castable, such as tapping a hole, polishing, plating, buffing, or painting.


Pore-free casting process
When no porosity is required for a casting then the pore-free casting process is used. It is identical to the standard process except oxygen is injected into the die before each shot. This causes small dispersed oxides to form when the molten metal fills the dies, which virtually eliminates gas porosity. An added advantage to this is greater strength. These castings can still be heat treated and welded. This process can be performed on aluminium, zinc, and lead alloys.


Heated-manifold direct-injection die casting
Heated-manifold direct-injection die casting, also known as direct-injection die casting or runnerless die casting, is a zinc die casting process where molten zinc is forced through a heated manifold and then through heated mini-nozzles, which lead into the molding cavity. This process has the advantages of lower cost per part, through the reduction of scrap (by the elimination of sprues, gates and runners) and energy conservation, and better surface quality through slower cooling cycles.


Equipment
There are two basic types of die casting machines: hot-chamber machines (a.k.a. gooseneck machines) and cold-chamber machines. These are rated by how much clamping force they can apply. Typical ratings are between 400 and 4,000 short tons.

Hot-chamber machines rely upon a pool of molten metal to feed the die. At the beginning of the cycle the piston of the machine is retracted, which allows the molten metal to fill the "gooseneck". The gas or oil powered piston then forces this metal out of the gooseneck into the die. The advantages of this system include fast cycle times (approximately 15 cycles a minute) and the convenience of melting the metal in the casting machine. The disadvantages of this system are that high-melting point metals cannot be utilized and aluminium cannot be used because it picks up some of the iron while in the molten pool. Due to this, hot-chamber machines are primarily used with zinc, tin, and lead based alloys.




Cold-chamber machines are used when the casting alloy cannot be used in hot-chamber machines; these include aluminium, zinc alloys with a large composition of aluminium, magnesium and copper. This machine works by melting the material, first, in a separate furnace. Then a precise amount of molten metal is transported to the cold-chamber machine where it is fed into an unheated shot chamber (or injection cylinder). This shot is then driven into the die by a hydraulic or mechanical piston. This biggest disadvantage of this system is the slower cycle time due to the need to transfer the molten metal from the furnace to the cold-chamber machine.

The dies used in die casting are usually made out of hardened tool steels because cast iron cannot withstand the high pressures involved. Due to this the dies are very expensive, resulting in high start-up costs. Dies may contain only one mold cavity or multiple cavities of the same or different parts. There must be at least two dies to allow for separation and ejection of the finished workpiece, however its not uncommon for there to be more sections that open and close in different directions. Dies also often contain water-cooling passages, retractable cores, ejector pins, and vents along the parting lines. These vents are usually wide and thin (approximately 0.13 mm or 0.005 in) so that when the molten metal starts filling them the metal quickly solidifies and minimizes scrap. No risers are used because the high pressure ensures a continuous feed of metal from the gate. Recently, there's been a trend to incorporate larger gates in the die and to use lower injection pressures to fill the mold, and then increase the pressure after its filled. This system helps reduce porosity and inclusions.

In addition to the dies there may be cores involved to cast features such as undercuts. Sand cores cannot be used because they disintegrate from the high pressures involved with die casting, therefore metal cores are used. If a retractable core is used then provisions must be made for it to be removed either in a straight line or circular arc. Moreover, these cores must have very little clearance between the die and the core to prevent the molten metal from escaping. Loose cores may also be used to cast more intricate features (such as threaded holes). These loose cores are inserted into the die by hand before each cycle and then ejected with the part at the end of the cycle. The core then must be removed by hand. Loose cores are more expensive due to the extra labor and time involved.

A die's life is most prominently limited by wear or erosion, which is strongly dependent on the temperature of the molten metal. Aluminium alloy die usually have a life of 100,000 cycles, if the die is properly maintained. Molds for die casting zinc last approximately 10 times longer than aluminium die casting mold due to the lower temperature of the zinc. Dies for zinc are often made of H13 and only hardened to 29-34 HRC. Cores are either made of H13 or 440B, so that the wearing parts can be selectively nitrided for hardness, leaving the exposed part soft to resist heat checking. Molds for die casting brass are the shortest-lived of all. Other failure modes for dies are:

* Heat checking: surface cracks occur on the die due to a large temperature change on every cycle
* Thermal fatigue: surface cracks occur on the die due to a large number of cycles

Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages:
* Excellent dimensional accuracy (dependent on casting material, but typically 0.1 mm for the first 2.5 cm (0.005 in. for the first inch) and 0.02 mm for each additional centimeter (0.002 in. for each additional inch).
* Smooth cast surfaces (1–2.5 micrometres or 0.04–0.10 thou rms).
* Thinner walls can be cast as compared to sand and permanent mold casting (approximately 0.75 mm or 0.030 in).
* Inserts can be cast-in (such as threaded inserts, heating elements, and high strength bearing surfaces).
* Reduces or eliminates secondary machining operations.
* Rapid production rates.
* Casting tensile strength as high as 415 MPa (60 ksi).

Disadvantages:
* Casting weight must be between 30 grams (1 oz) and 10 kg (20 lb).
* Casting must be smaller than 600 mm (24 in
* High initial cost.
* Limited to high-fluidity metals.
* A certain amount of porosity is common.
* Thickest section should be less than 13 mm (0.5 in).
* A large production volume is needed to make this an economical alternative to other processes.

Die casting materials
The main die casting alloys are: zinc, aluminium, magnesium, copper, lead, and tin. Specific dies casting alloys include: ZAMAK, zinc aluminium, AA 380, AA 384, AA 386, AA 390, and AZ91D magnesium. The following is a summary of the advantages of each alloy:

* Zinc: the easiest alloy to cast; high ductility; high impact strength; easily plated; economical for small parts; promotes long die life.
* Aluminium: lightweight; high dimensional stability for complex shapes and thin walls; good corrosion resistance; good mechanical properties; high thermal and electrical conductivity; retains strength at high temperatures.
* Magnesium: the easiest alloy to machine; excellent strength-to-weight ratio; lightest alloy commonly die cast.
* Copper: high hardness; high corrosion resistance; highest mechanical properties of alloys die cast; excellent wear resistance; excellent dimensional stability; strength approaching that of steel parts.
* Lead and Tin: high density; extremely close dimensional accuracy; used for special forms of corrosion resistance.

How to Make Your Own Leather Belt

Leather belts are an excellent craft project for those new to leather crafts. Aside from being one of the easier craft projects, they also make nice gifts. Contrary to what you may believe, it is actually quite easy to make a leather belt.

First, purchase leather and a belt buckle. If you plan to tool or dye the leather, it is ideal to choose a vegetable leather. This type is easier to work with than other kinds.

Note the width of the inside of the belt buckle. Measure the waist circumference of the individual who will be wearing the belt. Using a razor knife, cut the leather. The width will be that of the inside of the belt buckle and the length one foot longer than the waist circumference measurement. To ensure an even cut, use a straight edge such as yardstick. The end of the belt that will be fed through the belt buckle can be cut to your preference. Many people like to round the end.

On the other end of the belt, fold the leather back 1 ½ inches to create a crease. Line up a slot punch with the center of the crease. Hold the punch firmly by the handle and use a wooden mallet to hammer it in until the leather has been punctured fully.

Using a rotary or drive punch, make two rivet holes ¼ inch from the end of the belt before the crease. The holes should be ¼ inch from each side of the belt. Fold back the belt on the crease and mark where the rivet holes overlap the leather. Make two more rivet holes where you have marked. When the belt is folded on the crease, the rivet holes should perfectly align.

Use a belt beveller to trim belt edges smooth. If you plan to decorate the belt, do so now. Tools and design stamps can be used to add individual touches to the leather. Some people choose to add studs. Use a leather dye to color the belt. Keep in mind that the dye in the container may appear distinctly different from the finished version. When choosing a dye, look at finished samples to be sure you are getting the color you want.

Allow dye to dry completely, flexing the leather occasionally during the drying process. This will ensure the fibers do not stiffen up too much. It can take up to several hours for dyed leather to dry completely. Once dry, clean with Neat's foot oil or saddle soap and buff dry with a clean cloth.

Push the prong of the belt buckle through the hole made in the crease. Fold the leather back and align the rivet holes. Insert rivets from the inside of the belt and apply rivet caps using a rubber mallet.

Put on the belt and determine where a hole is needed to ensure a snug fit. Use a rotary punch to punch a hole that is centered from the edges of the belt. Working from this punched hole, punch a series of holes 1 inch apart.

Leather Cutting Dies

A clicker press is a machine that cuts shapes out of rolls of soft material, such as rubber, cardboard, or leather, using a sharp metal piece called a die. A metal tool and die shop will take a pattern, and bend, weld and form pre-sharpened steel into a die. A cutting die is usually a steel cutting tool to be used with a clicker press.

Cutting Dies are appropriate for cutting paper, leather, rubber, plastic and numerous others including envelope cutting dies, label cutting dies, clicker dies, window dies, punch dies, gasket cutting dies, washer dies, trimming dies, high dies, threaded punch dies, rotary panel cutters, corner blades, strap dies and more. Beverly Clicker Dies, Single Edge Dies, Double Edge Dies, Gang Dies, Precision Milled Dies, and Serrated Edge Dies are the six basic types of cutting dies. These dies are crafted from steel and will usually last for tens of thousands of cuts.

The Beverly Clicker Die is used primarily in the Shoe and Leather Garment Industries. It is simply a clicker die constructed around a center plate, which acts as a brace like reinforcement, creating a very strong and durable die. Double edge dies are used in applications with an identical right and left piece. To greatly reduce die cost the double edge die may be used . Such applications would be the shoe and glove trades. A good example would be a moccasin die with a distinct left and right size. By constructing a two sided die the price is less than making two distinct dies for right and left size.Gang dies are standard clicker dies in multiple configurations for high volume or multiple part situations.

A good example of a gang die would be a key fob in which you have orders for 10,000 pieces. Rather than just die cut one at a time it would be productive to cut a 2 up or 3 up gang die to do the cutting job efficientlyPrecision Milled Dies are an highly accurate die milled from high grade tool steel. The solid steel milled die is better used in very close tolerance high production situations. Precision dies are often used where super tight corners and fine tolerances are required.

This type of die may be unaffordable as it requires a fair amount of time and skilled labor and expensive machinery.New technology in cutting dies features a serrated edge that allows for the die to permeate multiple layers of materials much easier than conventional edge cutting dies. These particular edge dies also help eliminate fusing with many materials. A fine use of this type of dye would be cutting of multiple layers of vinyl.

What is Shearing ?

Shearing is a metal fabricating process used to cut straight lines on flat metal stock. During the shearing process, an upper blade and a lower blade are forced past each other with the space between them determined by a required offset. Normally, one of the blades remains stationary.

The shearing process characteristics include:

• Its ability to make straight-line cuts on flat sheet stock
• Metal placement between an upper and lower shear blades
• Its trademark production of burred and slightly deformed metal edges
• Its ability to cut relatively small lengths of material at any time since the shearing blades can be mounted at an angle to reduce the necessary shearing force required.

The illustration that follows provides a two-dimensional look at a typical metal shearing process. Note how the upper shear blade fractures the metal workpiece held in place by the workholding devices. The sheared piece drops away.

Typically, the upper shear blade is mounted at an angle to the lower blade that is normally mounted horizontally. The shearing process performs only fundamental straight-line cutting but any geometrical shape with a straight line cut can usually be produced on a shear.

Metal shearing can be performed on sheet, strip, bar, plate, and even angle stock. Bar and angle materials can only be cut to length. However, many shapes can be produced by shearing sheet and plate.

Materials that are commonly sheared include:

• Aluminum
• Brass
• Bronze
• Mild steel
• Stainless steel

The shearing process uses three types of tool systems. They are used for shearing:

1. Sheet metal and plate using a squaring or bow tie shear
2. Angle materials using and angle shear, and
3. Bar stock using a bar shear.

What is Metal Fabrication?

When using metal materials such as metal plate and wire for the purposes of jewelry making, very often the jewelry maker is required to shape and form the metal. The techniques used to do this are considered fabrication techniques where you use methods such as sawing, filing, and hammering to reform the metal piece into a different structure and shape.

Fabrication, therefore, is different than other types of metal techniques such as casting where you might have some kind of mold and your pour the hot metal into the mold to create the structure you need for a jewelry piece. With fabrication, you use hand tools, some finesse, and a little elbow grease to come up with the desired results.


While casting and soldering may get all the glory when it comes to metalsmithing, neither is really possible without first learning how to fabricate metal. In fact, you can’t really do either without also doing at least a little fabrication. For example, you may cast a metal charm, but you still need to file off the rough parts and polish the finished piece. You may need to solder two pieces of metal together, but unless the metal has been cut, filed, and cleaned properly, you won’t have soldering success.

How to Make Die-Cut Stickers

Die-cut stickers are a wonderful and decorative tool for scrapbookers, card makers and even for those creating posters for school projects. Die-cut stickers also make great gifts for younger children love to stick stickers everywhere. They can be made in almost every shape imaginable, and are much less expensive to make at home than they are to buy in craft stores.

1. Cover the back of a piece of decorative paper with double-sided carpet tape, leaving the protective paper on the other side of the tape.

2. Adhere your paper to your cutting mat, with the tape side down.

3. Place the desired cartridge in your Cricut and the key overlay on the keypad of your Cricut. Turn on the Cricut.

4. Select the design that you want to cut using the key overlay, also selecting any special features that you want to use to make the cut.

5. Set the Cricut blade on Depth 5 to ensure that it cuts through the paper and tape. Set the speed and pressure to the appropriate settings for the design you chose. It may be beneficial to do a test run on a regular piece of paper to determine the best speed and pressure settings before attempting to cut your stickers.

6. Load your cutting mat with the paper attached to it into the Cricut machine, move the blade to the top right-hand corner of the paper, set the paper size and then press "Cut.".

7. Unload the paper from the machine once it has finished the cut and remove your sticker from the mat using the Cricut spatula.

How to Become a Tool and Die Maker

Tool and die makers are highly skilled workers in the manufacturing arena. The tool and die maker works to produce devices that allow machines to manufacture a wide range of products such as parts for vehicles, appliances for our homes and clothing.

1. Get a high school diploma or a GED. You must be good at math, taking and reading measurements and reading blueprints. Take advantage of computer courses as well. Know how to use a computer. Most of the product designs for machine parts are done on computer.

2. Learn to use different types of machine tools and become familiar with precision measuring instruments. Study about the different properties of various metals, plastics and other materials. If you become a tool and die maker you will make machines, parts for machines and tools that are used to form and cut materials for manufacturing all kinds of products. You may even work with designers and engineers in the planning stages, once you gain experience.

3. Find work in a company that offers apprenticeship programs. Most tool and die making companies actually prefer to train their employees. You can start at entry-level with a company and get paid to work as you learn the trade. It usually takes four or five years to become a highly skilled craftsman in this specialized career.

4. Plan to become a specialist in a certain field. Most tool and die makers eventually focus on one type of tool, mold or type of die that they have become proficient in. Be prepared for detail-oriented work as you complete on-the-job training.

5. Consider taking courses at a community college or vocational school to give yourself a leg up in the field. These schools offer courses in tool design and advanced math such as algebra. These courses will be quite helpful if you plan to become a tool and die maker.